Journal of Exercise & Organ Cross Talk

Abstract Adipose tissue affects the lipid and glucose metabolism by secreting various adipokines such as lipocalin 2. The aim of present study was to compare the effect of 12 weeks’ moderate intensity continuous training (MICT) and high intensity interval training (HIIT) on the serum levels of lipocalin 2 in obese women. Thirty-six obese women with average age of 26.3±3.41 years old and body mass index of 31.6±1.27 kg.m2 were assigned to three groups consisting of control, MICT and HIIT groups. Both exercise training program conducted for 12 weeks three sessions per week. The MICT intensity was 60-70 percent of the maximum heart rate and the intensity for HIIT program considered 90 percent of maximum heart rate. Blood samples collected in pre and post-test stages and the levels of desired variables were measured. Data analysis was performed by the analysis of covariance test and Bonferroni post hoc-test (p<0.05). The findings indicated that both MICT and HIIT programs result in significant decrease of lipocalin-2 and insulin resistance (p<0.05). In addition, significant improvement of lipid profile in MICT and HIIT groups were observed and there was no significant difference between the trained groups. According to the findings, it seems that one of the positive effective mechanisms of exercise training is the decrease in lipocalin2 levels with continuous and high intensity interval training.

Abstract NAFLD, a general term that describes several diseases caused by hepatic fat deposition such as hepatic steatosis (HS) and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), includes the many conditions that are related to fat accumulation in the liver. Indeed, NAFLD is treated with a treatment plan consisting of weight loss, nutritional supplementation, and physical activity. Despite the lack of scientific research on diet and physical exercise, there is a paucity of evidence on NAFLD. The DASH and Mediterranean diets have been frequently used for treating cardiovascular metabolic risk factors, such as insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). In this study, an in-depth assessment of existing dietary and physical activity methods, involving Brazilian and other country-specific recommendations was conducted to determine their effect on the risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

Abstract Air pollution is one of the most important problems of recent decades, which has serious toxic effects on human health and the environment. Sources of pollution vary from small units of cigarettes and natural sources such as volcanic activity to large volumes of emissions from car engines and industrial activities or even radioactive ones. Today, there are various pollutants around the world that negatively affect human health. Walking and being in a polluted environment can increase the penetration of pollutants such as lead in the body. Increasing physical activity such as long-term running, which is widely used in some jobs such as military jobs, can increase the activity of muscle tissue, and as a result, the cardiovascular system becomes more active and helps absorb more pollutants. Lead acetate is a possible carcinogen in humans, which is absorbed into the human body by pollutants. There is evidence that lead compounds can cause lung, brain, stomach, and kidney cancer in humans. However, pollution does not include air pollution only, and noise pollution can endanger human health as well. Since some occupations such as those of military experience various types of noise, as well as chemical and radioactive pollution and the point that having high physical fitness is essential for these people, this study examined the impact of various pollutants on the military personnel and also sought to see whether exercising and having high physical fitness of military personnel can reduce the stress caused by the pollution.

Abstract Dear Editor-in-Chief
Lifestyle-related diseases are usually caused by mistakes in daily life, such as smoking, unhealthy diet, and inactivity. Some of these diseases are including heart diseases, stroke, diabetes, obesity, metabolic syndrome, lung diseases and some types of cancer. These diseases are usually more prevalent in industrialized countries where sedentary lifestyles have spread. At the international level, these diseases are known as non-communicable and chronic diseases or degenerative diseases. Chronic diseases can lead to loss of independence, years of disability, or death, and impose a significant economic burden.
Regular physical activity helps improve your overall health, fitness and quality of life. Also, regular exercise helps reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes, heart disease, many types of cancer, depression, anxiety and dementia. Aerobic exercise can help improve your heart health and endurance. Also, these types of exercise help to lose weight. High-intensity interval training is generally safe and effective for most people. In high-intensity interval training, physical activity is performed alternately with high intensity and with low intensity, and these intensity changes have various effects on the health of the body. Strength training can improve muscle strength and endurance, make daily activities easier, reduce disease-related muscle weakness, and provide joint stability. In all these types of exercises, the skeletal muscle tissue has the most activity, and most of the positive effects of exercise are attributed to this tissue. Recently, it has been stated that muscle tissue as a secretome can secrete substances from itself and affect distant tissues. These substances secreted from muscle tissue are known as myokines.
During exercise muscles can produce and release cytokines, signaling peptides or myokines. These molecules can exert paracrine and endocrine actions. Not all of them are produced exclusively by skeletal muscle, as they can also be released by other cells such as adipose tissue (adipomyokines). Nevertheless, skeletal muscle is probably the major source of most myokines, as it constitutes more than 30% of human body mass (Piccirillo, 2019). Myokine irisin produced from muscle tissue can control many damages caused by fatty tissue and reduce the inflammatory damage of this tissue in metabolic diseases such as diabetes, fatty liver or even cardiovascular diseases. β-aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA) is a myokine involved in browning of fat and it can reduce insulin resistance (Gonzalez-Gil & Elizondo-Montemayor, 2020). Myostatin also controls insulin resistance and prevents fat accumulation in the liver (Mikolasevic et al., 2020). Follistatin is also effective in regulating the growth of muscle tissue and reducing fat tissue (Song et al., 2019). FGF21 also promotes insulin sensitivity. Apelin and METRNL also have anti-inflammatory properties (Gholamrezayi et al., 2020). All these myokines can be effective in reducing lifestyle-related diseases with their role. Therefore, exercise should be included in your daily life.

Abstract Dear Editor-in-Chief
Exosomes contain regulatory signals such as growth factors, miRNAs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids that can be transported to adjacent or distant cells to affect the target tissue under both physiological and pathological conditions (Isaac et al., 2021). Exosomes are involved in various stages of disease control including apoptosis, immune regulation, angiogenesis, cell migration and cell proliferation. Exosomes are a ubiquitous, evolutionarily conserved mechanism of cellular communication. They play important roles in healthy physiological functions. Proteins, metabolites, and nucleic acids delivered by exosomes to recipient cells effectively modulate their biological response. Such exosome-mediated responses can promote or inhibit disease. The intrinsic properties of exosomes in regulating complex intracellular pathways have increased their potential application in the therapeutic control of many diseases, including neurological conditions and cancer.
Many agents are involved in modulating exosomes and other extracellular vesicles gene expression and release. One of these agents is the mechanical stress caused by exercise training. Exercise with its mechanical and oxidative stress can disrupt cell homeostasis and create adaptations at the molecular and cellular level to improve physiological health, which is effective in prevention of different diseases. Exercise by activation of all organs of the body, especially skeletal muscle, promotes the release of exosomes, through which it can develop organ crosstalk and have beneficial effects at the cellular level. It has been show that exercise promotes the release of exosomes without modification of its vesicle size (Estebanez et al., 2021). Little current data suggests that exosomes are released into the circulation in an intensity-dependent manner in response to acute endurance exercise. Many of the currently reported myokines/exerkines are also produced from exosomes. Finally, exosomes within skeletal muscle are depleted in response to an acute bout of endurance exercise (Safdar & Tarnopolsky, 2018).

Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate and compare the effect of eight weeks of continuous and interval training on PGC-1α and FNDC5 gene expression in the gastrocnemius muscle of male Wistar rats. 30 eight-week-old rats with an average weight of 192 ± 10 were randomly divided into 3 groups (n=10): control group (Ctrl), interval endurance training group (IET) and continuous endurance training group (CET). The exercise groups participated in 8 weeks of continuous or interval training program (5 days per week). 24 hours after the last training session, all the rats were anesthetized and their gastrocnemius muscles were collected and transferred to the laboratory to measure the mRNA levels of PGC-1α and FNDC5 genes by Real Time-PCR method. The results showed that the expression level of FNDC5 in the gastrocnemius muscle was significantly higher in the interval and continuous endurance training groups than in the control group. Also, the expression of this gene was higher in the interval group than in the continuous group. It was also found that the expression of PGC-1α gene was significantly increased in both training groups compared to the control group. Also, the expression of this gene increased significantly in the interval training group compared to the continuous. It seems that interval endurance training has a greater effect on the expression of PGC-1α and FNDC5 factors in the gastrocnemius muscle.

Abstract The purpose of this study was to determining the range of aerobic exercise on a treadmill for male Wistar rats at different ages. Twelve male Wistar rats were divide in three groups of immature, adults, and old (n= 4 in each). At first session, the rats began to run at a rate of 2 m/min to perform the fatigue test, and the treadmill speed was increased by 2 m/min every 2 minutes. This process of acceleration continued until the rats were no longer able to continue moving on the treadmill and became exhausted. Then, blood lactate of each subject measured immediately and their maximum speed was recorded. After 48 hours of recovery, animal performed maximum recorded speed on a treadmill in three 10-minute steps of 25%, 50% and 75%, respectively. Immediately after each percent blood lactate were measured and recorded. Immature rats at an average speed of 18 m/min were reached to their maximum speed with an average lactate concentration of 8±1.8 mmol/l. Adults rats at an average speed of 36 m/min were reached to their maximum speed with an average lactate concentration of 6.8±0.4 mmol/l. The old rats reached their maximum velocity with an average of 30 m/min with an average lactate concentration of 6.95±0.9 mmol/l. Therefore, it recommended that aerobic exercise in untrained rats start at a light speed, i.e. 25% of their maximum speed, which is lower than the lactate threshold, and gradually continue up to 50% of their maximum speed.

Abstract Like other cells in the body, nerve cells need many proteins and substances to maintain homeostasis. As we know, the transcription and translation of proteins and necessary cellular substances occurs in the cell nucleus. The nucleus of nerve cell is located in the cell body. Another part of the nerve cell is “Axon”, which has a long structure. Even in some nerve cells axon’s length reaches up to 1000 mm. On the other hand, all parts of the neuron need substances and proteins synthesized in nucleus locating in the cell body. Therefore, a mechanism is necessary to express the movement of materials from nucleus along the axon. The movement of materials along the axon is called ‘Axoplasmic Transport’. It seems that disturbances in axoplasmic transport can cause various neuronal problems. The purpose of this study is to investigate the mechanism of axoplasmic transport and its types; moreover, the possible effect of exercise on this transition will be discussed.

Abstract Dear Editor-in-Chief
In recent years, exercise has been called an ‘amazing’ medicine and a ‘miracle’ cure. Scientific research shows that regular exercise is effective in preventing and treating many common diseases, including type 2 diabetes, dementia, depression, heart disease, some cancers, and other common diseases (Fang et al., 2022). In fact, exercise in a specific dose and formula is prescribed for each patient who is diagnosed with the disease. The prescription should be very clear in terms of modality, intensity, frequency, and duration.
In this regard, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) has launched the "Exercise is Medicine" project to recognize the myriad health benefits of exercise. These include reducing the incidence of a number of different cancers, lowering the risk of excessive weight gain (along with related health problems as well as diabetes), and improving cardiovascular health (as well as reducing the risk of high blood pressure in addition to heart stroke) (Ghardashi-Afousi et al., 2018).
The acute effect of exercise has been shown to lead to a transient decrease in triglyceride levels, an increase in HDL cholesterol levels, a decrease in blood pressure, a decrease in insulin resistance, and an improvement in glucose control. Regular exercise increases blood flow and oxygen to the brain which improves memory and mental function. It also increases the production of a number of hormones that stimulate the growth of brain cells (Ueno-Pardi et al., 2022).
In addition, some literature describes exercise even better than medicine. For example, a review of more than 300 randomized controlled trials found that exercise was as effective as drugs at risk for heart disease and diabetes, and more effective than post-stroke rehabilitation drugs (Naci & Ioannidis, 2013).
It has previously been suggested that vaccinating children with exercise can control the obesity epidemic in them. Recently, in the coronavirus outbreak, exercise has been referred to as a vaccine or vaccine adjuvant (Naci & Ioannidis, 2013). A recent study in the British Journal of Sports Medicine (BJSM) suggests that routine activities may protect people with COVID-19 from serious illness.
Evidence suggests that exercise and obesity are involved in the pathogenesis of COVID-19 disease and vaccine efficacy. Regular exercise has been shown to exert immune regulatory effects, control viral gateway, modulate inflammation, stimulate NO production pathways, and control oxidative stress. Adaptation to ordinary exercise seems to affect immune function, particularly innate and adaptive immunity, and ameliorate humoral immunity with enhanced vaccination responses. Exercise may at least partially reduce the detrimental effect of SARS-CoV-2 binding to the ECA2 receptor. Exercise training can activate anti-inflammatory signaling pathways (Shirvani & Rostamkhani, 2020). Today, COVID-19 vaccination has shown that individuals who exercise continuously and regularly may develop higher antibody titers to the SARS-CoV-2 strain contained in the vaccine compared to individuals who do not exercise (Hallam et al., 2022).
On the other hand, understanding how obesity and adiposity affect immunity and more specifically the production and function of antibodies is of great importance (Malavazos et al., 2020). Numerous studies have shown the effect of obesity on antibody properties. For example, adaptive immune responses to influenza virus are impaired during obesity, innate and adaptive immune responses to influenza are delayed in obese patients, and obesity was suggested to decline influenza antibody titers following influenza vaccination and reduce vaccine efficacy with poor vaccine immunization. In the same manner, lower COVID-19 mRNA vaccine-induced antibody titers have been related to central obesity and severe acute respiratory syndrome (Ghanemi et al., 2021).     
In general, recent research on the Covid-19 epidemic has shown that exercise is not only a wonderful medicine in the prevention and treatment of many diseases, but also regular exercise can act as an adjunct vaccine. Therefore, prescribing exercise will always help promote community health and is completely in line with the P4 medicine approach (predictive, preventative, personalized, and participatory).

Abstract The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of high intensity interval training on adipose tissue PAI-2 and MMP-2 mRNAs expression in rat with high-fat diet-induced metabolic syndrome. In this experimental study, 32 male Wistar rats (120 to 130 g) were selected and after 12 weeks of high-fat diet and modeling of metabolic syndrome were randomly divided into 4 groups: control, metabolic syndrome (Mets), high intensity interval training (HIIT) and Mets + HIIT. The HIIT program included 5 to 10 intense running on the treadmill with an intensity of 80 to 95% of the maximum speed and in slow running with a speed of 55% of the maximum speed with a zero slope of the treadmill for 8 weeks. Data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results of one-way analysis of variance showed that there was a difference between the mean expression of MMP-2 and PAI-2 mRNA in adipose tissue of male rats with metabolic syndrome in different groups (P = 0.001). However, HIIT improve this gene after Mets in adipose tissue (p<0.05). It seems that HIIT program improve metabolic syndrome with controlling PAI-2 mRNA and have an anti-inflammatory effect in adipose tissue. However, it need to more studies especially on human sample.

Abstract The modifications of PGC-1𝛼 induce the change of the carcinogenesis and tumor growth and lead to increased antioxidant enzymes. The present study aimed to determine the cross talk between PGC1-α mRNA expression, tumor volume growth, and total antioxidant capacity in breast cancer model mice, followed by discontinuous aerobic exercise and vitamin D. In the present study, 40 female NMRI mice were randomly assigned into five equal groups (n=8): healthy control group (H.C), cancer control group (Ca.C), cancer with the vitamin D group (U.Ca.VD), cancer exercise training group (Ca. Ex), and cancer exercise training with the vitamin D group (Ca.Ex.VD). As the results indicate, the bodyweight of cancer groups (p=0.041, F=3.61) and the tumor growth rate significantly reduced compared to the H.C group. The results indicated that the PGC-1α mRNA expression and TAC (p=0.013, F=5.16) change significantly different between the study groups. Besides, based on the results, a significant positive correlation was observed between PGC1-α and tumor volume growth among the groups, whereas a negative relationship exists between PGC1-α and TAC and among TAC and tumor volume growth only in the Ca. Ex.VD group. The correlation between the variables confirms using vitamin D treatment with the implementation of discontinuous aerobic exercise, as a synergistic effect, improves the total antioxidant capacity and is effective in controlling tumor growth. We recommend that further studies be done on exercise training along with supplementation intake synergistic.

Abstract This study investigated the effect of high intensity interval training on CTGF and RXFP1 genes expression of heart tissue and SGPT liver enzyme in rats with fatty liver. 48 male Wistar rats (200-250 g) were divided randomly into the following 6 groups: Healthy base group (BH), base Steatosis group (BS), Healthy HIIT group (HIIT), Steatosis HIIT group (SHIIT), Healthy control group (CH), control Steatosis group (CS). Rats in the fatty liver group received oral tetracycline daily for two weeks. Rats in the training groups were also trained for 5 weeks / five days. Both BS and BH groups sacrificed at the end of the 2nd week. CS and training groups sacrificed at the end of 5th week and heart tissue samples were taken to examine CTGF, RXFP1, and SGPT genes expression. The results of the study showed that he amounts of SGPT in BS and CS groups were meaningfully higher than those in the other 4 groups. The level of this enzyme in SHIIT and HIIT groups was significantly lower than that in the fatty liver groups. The RXFP1 gene expression in CS, BS and SHIIT groups were significantly higher than those in the other 3 groups. Thus, it can be claimed that fatty liver increased cardiac fibrosis factors but by reducing these factors HIIT was able to prevent the process of cardiac fibrosis from liver Steatosis; therefore, HITT can be used as a new method to Cardiac rehabilitation of patients.

Abstract Dear Editor-in-Chief
The chemokines are a superfamily of small, secreted proteins that regulate leukocyte migration. Several of these chemokines have been associated with various diseases. Some chemokines have been reported to be expressed in the lung, including interleukin (IL)-8/CXCL8, eotaxin/CCL11, macrophage-inflammatory protein (MIP)-3α/CCL20, and DC-CK1/pulmonary- and activation-related chemokine (PARC)/alternative macrophage activation-associated CC-chemokine (AMAC)-1/CCL18 (Homey et al., 2000). It is interesting that there is even one reported chemokine that is specifically expressed in the lung, lungkine/CXCL15 (Rossi et al., 1999). Lungkine is an important mediator of neutrophil migration from the lung parenchyma into the airspace.
Chemokine CXCL15, which absorbs neutrophils during pulmonary inflammation, is also known as lungkine because of its reported exclusive expression in the lung. CXCL15, previously reported as the only lung-specific chemokine, is also highly expressed in other mucosal organs and endocrine glands of mice. The functional role of CXCL15 is unclear with precise exercise training, and little research has addressed this issue. Files et al. (2015) evaluated the effects of therapeutic exercise on lung disease and also measured CXCL15 levels (Files et al., 2015). In this study, although CXCL15 was down regulated in response to exercise therapy, they stated that exercise therapy improved both alveolar neutrophil lung damage and skeletal muscle atrophy in the animal model of ARDS. They stated that more studies are needed to identified mechanisms underlying exercise and its benefits in the lungs, which may indicate new molecular targets for the treatment of ARDS.
Clinical and experimental studies have shown that regular aerobic exercise can prevent or even eliminate a number of diseases, especially in patients in the intensive care unit. This beneficial effect of exercise is associated with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant protection. Despite the apparent benefits, the dose of exercise intensity is still unknown. Balducci et al. (Balducci et al., 2010), showed that people with type 2 diabetes who performed intense exercise had a significant improvement in their inflammatory status. High-intensity exercise reduced pneumonia and improved oxidative status in experimental models of allergic pneumonia and exposure to contaminants (Ávila et al., 2015). Due to the mechanism involved in changes in epithelial pathogenesis, strenuous exercise with hyperventilation can affect the airway epithelium by altering the viscosity, elastic force, or amount of airway fluid. In an animal model trained with an intense exercise protocol, an increase in the infiltration of leukocytes into the bronchial wall was observed (Chimenti et al., 2007). Therefore, it is believed that performing intense exercise may cause inflammatory cells to invade the airways, epithelial changes, and defective remodeling. However, studies in this area are also contradictory. In a study high-intensity swimming showed a protective effect on ALI, decreasing inflammatory processes and preventing disturbances in antioxidant defenses into the lungs (Cardoso et al., 2018). However, little is known about the possible protective effects of HIIT on lungkine CXCL15 and its mechanisms of action.

Abstract Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is found in the membrane of skeletal muscle cells. A variety of factors can activate TLR4. It has been shown that TLR4 expression reduce after aerobic training, but more studies considering the influences of different types of training on TLR4 expression are necessary. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of 8 weeks of aerobic training on muscle TLR4 Expression in rats. Twenty Male Wistar rats (200±20 g) divided into four groups: control, training, high fat diet (HFD) and HFD+exerise. High fat diet was made by adding 10% animal oil, 2% cholesterol and 0.5% colic acid to standard rodent chow. Training group performed a swimming training protocol (1 h/day, and 5 days/week for 8 weeks). Forty eight hours after the final session of training, the rats were sacrificed and their gastrocnemius muscle was removed for determination of TLR4 expression. Training significantly decreased TLR4 messenger RNA and protein expression (p<0.05). Levels of TLR4 expression in the HFD group was significantly (p<0.05) higher tahn control ones. Our result displayed that training in rats induceed a critical suppression in the TLR4 signaling in muscle. These data give noticeable progress in our knowledge of the events that link physical training to an improvement in inflammation.

Abstract There is no treatment for Alzheimer's disease. However, some treatments can have a slowing and controlling effect on the disease process. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of aerobic training with saffron extract on plasma levels of apo E4 and presenilin gene in Alzheimer's rats by trimethyltin chloride. In this experimental study, 32 male Sprague-Dawley rats with the weight of 180±20 g were selected and after Alzheimer's induction (by intraperitoneal injection of 80 mg/kg trimethyltin chloride) were randomly divided into 4 groups; control, aerobic training, saffron extract, saffron extract- aerobic training. Saffron extract was injected intraperitoneally at the dose of 25 mg/kg daily for eight weeks. The aerobic training program consisted of incremental running on the treadmill at a speed of 15 to 20 m/min and 15 to 30 min per session and 3 sessions per week for 8 weeks. Data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA at the P<0.05. The results showed that aerobic training (P=0.13), saffron extract (P=0.14) and the interaction of aerobic training and saffron extract (P=0.13) had no significant effect on apo E4in rats. Also, aerobic training (P=0.68), saffron consumption (P=0.67) and interaction of aerobic training and saffron extract (P=0.32) had no significant effect on persniline gene in rats. According to the results, it seems that aerobic training and saffron extract do not significantly alter the levels of apo E4 and the presenilin of Alzheimer's rats.

Abstract Understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms that regulate aging reduces the possibility of dependence on age-related diseases. Exercise treatment strategies reduce the burden of aging-related illness, disability, and premature death in the elderly. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of high-intensity interval swimming training on ULK and TSC1/2 proteins of hippocampus tissue in elderly rats. In this experimental study, 16 elderly male Sprague Dawley rats (20 months old and mean weight 300-450 g) were divided into two groups of control and high-intensity interval swimming training. High-intensity interval swimming training consisted of 14 bouts 20-second swimming sessions with 10 seconds of rest between each session for six weeks (three days a week). The content of ULK and TSC1/2 proteins in hippocampal tissue was measured by Western blotting. Data were analyzed using independent t-test at the P<0.05. The results showed that high-intensity interval swimming training caused significant increase in content of ULK protein of hippocampus tissue in elderly rats (P=0.010). Also, high-intensity interval swimming training caused significant decrease in content of TSC1/2 protein of hippocampus tissue in elderly rats (P=0.010). According to the results, it seems that high-intensity interval swimming training can help improve the homeostasis regulatory pathways in hippocampal neurons in the elderly animal model.

Abstract Dear Editor-in-Chief
Active lymphocytes under a burst during proliferation, biosynthesis, and secretory activity increase their metabolism. In order to achieve this dramatic increase in metabolism, they must obtain a metabolic substrate. Their insignificant nutrient stores force lymphocytes to have a significant increase in the consumption of the metabolic substrate around them. Although lymphocytes are able to utilize glucose, glutamine, ketones, and fatty acids, it has been confirmed that glucose and glutamine are the most important quantitative fuels for activated lymphocytes (Curi et al., 1999). The function of T cells is closely related to the metabolic program, meaning that a T cell fights antigens, invasive agents, and inhibits infection until the main fuels of this cell, glucose and glutamine, are consumed and metabolized in sufficient quantities. There are significant and growing techniques that target the metabolism of T cells for immunotherapy.
Degradation of lymphocyte metabolism and function has been observed in various inflammatory, metabolic and autoimmune diseases. Maximum activity and levels of HK, G6PDH, CS, GLUTase enzymes of lymphocytes are always reduced for patients with Graves (Werner et al., 1996). In vitro, it has been shown that thyroid hormone increases glucose and glutamine lymphocyte metabolism in these patients. Also, it has been reported to coexist with acute and chronic infection in several diseases such as cancer or asthma, and gradation of T1 and T2 metabolism (Zhao et al., 2012).
It has been suggested that a part of the safety effects of exercise is due to the ability of exercise to modulate lymphocyte cell metabolism, especially glucose and glutamine. It has also been observed that changes in lymphocyte function are associated with different effects of moderate exercise on T and B lymphocyte metabolism. In addition, T lymphocytes increase glutamine intake by altering the metabolism of this amino acid to the aerobic pathway. At the same time, these cells reduce glucose intake and lactate production levels. In contrast, B lymphocytes were shown to increase intake of both glucose and glutamine, while aerobic metabolism of glutamine increased (Navarro et al., 2013). All of these changes in lymphocytes are possible because key enzymes in glucose and glutamine metabolism are affected by chronic exercise. Thus, as the aerobic metabolism of glutamine increases, the maximum activity of GLUTase and CS in T lymphocytes increases in response to exercise. In addition to these two enzymes, maximal activity of HK and G6PDH increased in B lymphocytes in response to chronic exercise (Navarro et al., 2013). Most of these studies have examined the immune system and T lymphocyte response to exercise with moderate intensity. High intensity interval training (HIIT) usually consists of intermittent sets of exercise (Vo2max usually equal to or greater than 90%) accompanied by few minutes of active rest. Little is known about inflammatory and metabolic immune responses after HIIT.
Moderate-intensity exercise stimulates the immune system and increases resistance to infectious diseases. However, during prolonged and intense exercise or strenuous exercise and competition, an immune suppression often occurs during the recovery period. Immune responses after exercise are almost similar to those seen in infection and inflammation (e.g., neutrophilia and lymphocytopenia) (Tauler et al., 2006). Researchers have suggested that intense exercise induces these changes with oxidative stress, changes in neuroendocrine factors such as catecholamines, growth hormone, and cortisol (Fisher et al., 2011). Therefore, it is suggested that low-intensity, high-frequency, long-term exercise be effective in improving the lymphocyte metabolic crossover.

Abstract Mechanical hindlimb suspension of lower extremities leads to prompt atrophy in rats' skeletal muscles. The present research was designed to study cross-section area (CSA) and the expression level of the genes ATF4, P53, MST1, and atrogin-1 in slow and fast skeletal muscles following mechanical hindlimb suspension. 20 male Wistar rats were assigned randomly in to two groups: control (Con) and hind-limb suspension (HU) (10 rats per each group). In HU group, tail suspension was designed for 14 constitutive days; however, animals in the control group passed a normal life.  The findings indicated that hind-limb suspension could relatively diminish CSA, myonuclei number per fiber and the weight of both soleus and EDL muscles. However, these reductions were not significant for EDL muscle. Furthermore, the expression level of the MST1, atrogin-1, ATF4, and p53 in soleus muscles elevated significantly. Moreover, the expression level of all four genes increased significantly in EDL muscle. Comparison of genes expression level between two soleus and EDL muscles showed that expression of MST1, ATF4, and p53 genes were higher in soleus than EDL, but it was not the case for atrogin-1 as its expression level was more in EDL compared to soleus. Our study provides novel evidence that immobilization of hind-limbs can induce a more powerful atrophic response in slow muscles in comparison to fast ones.

Abstract Dear Editor-in-Chief
The increasing prevalence of diabetes in the world, which is projected to reach 4.4% of the world's population by 2030, has raised concerns about the disease (Wild et al., 2004) so that it can affect any of the psychological, physical, social and economic aspects of the patient’s life (Abdel-Gawad, 2014).
Accordingly, epidemiological studies have also indicated that nearly 50% of diabetic patients suffer from various reproductive system diseases such as, erectile dysfunction, ejaculation difficulties, reduced sperm quality, and infertility (Song et al., 2021).
The two main forms of diabetes (type 1 and type 2 diabetes) are characterized by progressive β-cell failure. In type 1 diabetes, β-cell mass is reduced by 70–80% at the time of diagnosis (Cnop et al., 2005).
Pancreatic islet βcell dysfunction leads to glucose metabolism disorder at the whole-body level, which inhibits lactate production by Sertoli cells in testicular tissue. As lactate is the main energy substrate for developing germ cells, its decrease is strongly correlated with spermatogenic dysfunction. Therefore, glucose metabolism disorder appears to be a primary reason of spermatogenic dysfunction in patients with long-term diabetes (Song et al., 2021)
Spermatogenesis is the process by which thousands of spermatozoa are produced daily in the gonads. Spermatogonial stem cells are necessary for the onset and continuation of spermatogenesis. Sertoli somatic cells that are in direct contact with spermatogonia stem cells are known to support, coordinate, nourish, and protect the germ cell populations from onset to the end of their meiotic process (Faure et al., 2017).
Energy metabolism is a key factor supporting spermatogenesis, including cell proliferation, meiotic division, and differentiation of post-meiotic cells into spermatozoa. In mammals, this process occurs under the influence of Sertoli cells, which “nurse” spermatogenic cells by releasing lactate as an end product of glycolytic metabolism. Lactate is taken up and metabolized by meiotic and post-meiotic spermatogenic cell mitochondria. In round spermatids, external lactate is an efficient metabolite for oxidative metabolism in these cells (Brauchi et al., 2005)
In recent decades, the demand for exercise among men and women has increased considerably due to its health benefits, despite this global increase in the desire for physical activity, there is still insufficient knowledge about how the exercise trainings could have positive and negative effects on each organ of the body, including the reproductive system and fertility as well as promoting beneficial effects along with eliminating and preventing unwanted side effects. Relatively, various studies have been indicated that long-term high-intensity exercise training has devastating effects on the male reproductive system. In fact, exercise training causes high physical stress and affects homeostasis, so if done exhaustingly, destructive effects on certain systems and organs of the body, such as reduced sperm parameters (Seminal) and sex hormone levels in elite male athletes might possibly ensue. Additionally, it should be noted that high-intensity exercise training may also have destructive effects on the male reproductive system of non-professionals (Vaamonde et al., 2009).
Although anaerobic exercise training may lead to spermatogenic dysfunction, it could also have positive effects based on the fact that high-intensity exercise training through the glycolytic energy production system can increase blood lactate level which is the substrate of Sertoli cells to continue the process of spermatogenesis. Hence, doing original and crosstalk research by researchers is crucial to complete this hypothesis and identify the related mechanisms.

Abstract The study aimed to compare the acute effects of low resistance exercises with partial and complete blood flow restriction (BFR) and heavy resistance exercise on growth hormone (GH), myostatin, testosterone, and cortisol in competitive wrestlers. Forty elite wrestlers were randomly divided into four groups (n=10); low resistance training with complete BFR (LRT+CBFR), low resistance training with partial BFR (LRT+PBFR), low resistance training (LRT), and heavy resistance training (HRT). Blood samples were collected before and after the intervention, and a specific ELISA kit measured variables. Analysis of covariance and paired t-test was performed to analyze the data. There were no significant differences in the variables between the four interventions. Intra-group results showed a significant decrease in myostatin levels in the HRT group (p=0.02), and a significant increase in GH in the LRT+CBFR (p=0.02) and LRT+PBFR (p=0.03), testosterone in the HRT group (p=0.04) and cortisol in the three groups LRT+CBFR (p=0.02), LRT+PBFR (p=0.01) and HRT (p=0.04). Despite the similarity of the changes in the four interventions, due to the percentage of changes, it seems that low resistance training with BFR could produce similar anabolic effects to high-intensity resistance training.

Abstract The aim of our study was to examine the effect of 12 weeks of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise on bone mineral density (BMD), lymphocyte alkaline phosphatase (ALP) mRNA expression, and biochemical markers of bone turnover in postmenopausal women (PMWs). Twenty-four healthy sedentary PMWs aged 45-70 years were randomly assigned to exercise (EX, n=12) and control (C, n=12) groups. The EX group performed walking/jogging (50-60min/day, 3days/week at 65%-70% HRmax reserve) for 12-week while the C group participated in no intervention and continued their normal lifestyle. The BMD and lymphocyte ALP mRNA were determined by DXA and qRT-PCR, respectively. After 12 weeks, the increase in the lymphocyte ALP mRNA expression and its serum (P=0.008 and P=0.001), PTH (P=0.001), Vit-D (P=0.002), and VO2max (P=0.001) were significantly higher in the EX group compared to the C group, whereas body fat was significantly decreased (P=0.028). Our study indicates that 12 weeks of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise intervention improves bone turnover by increasing the ALP mRNA expression, serum levels of PTH, ALP, and Vit-D which can lead to the prevention of aging-induced osteopenia among PMWs.

Abstract The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of two methods of resistance training TRX and traditional resistance on the response of some indicators of muscle damage in soccer players. The present study was a semi-experimental; therefore, 36 participants with mean age of 19/36±1/4 were voluntarily selected and assigned to two groups of TRX and traditional resistance training. The training program for both groups consisted of several joint movements, these movements in 2 sets, with 8 repetitions in to isometric form, and the duration of muscle tension in each movement was 20 seconds. Both groups were evaluated by biochemical, physical and anthropometric measurements in two stages of pre-test and post-test. Data analysis was done using independent sample t-test and paired sample t-test with the significant level of 0.05 (p≤0.05). Serum creatine kinase levels showed a significant increase in traditional resistance training group 54.01% (p=0.001) and in the TRX training group 58.19% (p=0.003). Serum lactate dehydrogenase levels increased significantly as the result of traditional resistance training (p=0.033) while Aspartate aminotransferase did not show any significant changes from pre-test to post-test in the experimental groups. Moreover, the results of the present study showed that there was no significant difference in the changes observed in the indices of muscle damage between a traditional training and TRX training. Therefore, performing TRX or traditional training is not improving muscle injury during training.

Abstract It has been proven that strenuous endurance training increases oxidative stress in body. This study investigated the effects of curcumin supplementation and light resistance training during 8 weeks of endurance training on muscle and serum antioxidant capacity and lipid peroxidation of male wistar rats. 44 male Wistar rats (weight: 254.31±17.72 g and age: 8 weeks) were randomly divided to 6 groups; Control (n=6, sham), Curcumin (n=6), Endurance (n=8), Endurance-curcumin (n=8), Endurance-Resistance (n=8), and Endurance-curcumin-resistance (n=8). Endurance training performed on rodent treadmill for 8 weeks and 5 sessions a week. The speed and duration of running were 10 m/min and 30 min at first week. The intensity and duration reached to the 35 m/min and 70 min up to the last week. Resistance training (8 weeks, 2 sessions / week) performed on vertical ladder (with 30-70% BW). The animals received curcumin supplement by sub peritoneal injection (8 weeks, 3 sessions / week, 30 mg/kg.Bw). Superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzyme activity was measured by Elisa kit and Malondialdehyde (MDA) was measured by the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS).  The results of this study showed that strenuous endurance training (p<0.05) reduces the serum levels of SOD significantly, and caused a significant increase in the lipid peroxidation (MDA in muscle and serum). Curcumin supplementation and light resistance training could increase antioxidant enzymes activity (SOD) and decrease the MDA levels. The prolonged strenuous endurance training can induce oxidative stress and curcumin supplementation along with light resistance training could restore antioxidant enzymes activity and decrease the MDA levels.

Abstract The main purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of primary swimming on the hormonal anabolic-catabolic balance and serum leptin in obese children and adolescents. Sixty obese subjects (children and adolescents) were randomly assigned to one of four groups: 1) Primary swimming training (children); 2) control (children); 3) Primary swimming training (adolescents); and 4) control (adolescents) groups. Our experimental subjects performed a primary swimming training for 8 weeks, 3 sessions per week and 60 minutes per session. Before and after training period, blood samples, anthropometric and body composition measurements were taken in fasting state from all subjects. The findings showed that the primary swimming training prevents significant increase of serum leptin and insulin hormone in adolescents. Furthermore, primary swimming training caused a significant decrease in body fat percent, body fat mass and body mass index, a significant increase of VO_2max in children and adolescents, a significant decrease in cortisol hormone as well as a significant increase in fat free mass in adolescents (p<0.05). There was a positive and significant correlation between levels of leptin changes and body fat percent and fat mass after primary swimming training (p<0.05). In addition, there was a negative and significant correlation between levels of leptin hormone changes and fat free mass after primary swimming training (p<0.05). Therefore, it can be concluded that eight weeks of primary swimming training improves serum leptin and some of the anthropometric, hormonal and metabolic parameters.